The delivery of a drug by inhalation allows deposition of the drug in different sections of the respiratory tract, e.g., throat, trachea, bronchi and alveoli. Generally, the smaller the particle size, the longer the particle will remain suspended in air and the farther down the respiratory tract the drug can be delivered. Drugs are delivered by inhalation using a nebulizer, metered dose inhaler (MDI), or dry powder inhaler (DPI).
Dry powder inhalers provide powder pharmaceuticals in aerosol form to patients. In order to generate an aerosol, the powder in its static state must be fluidized and entrained into the patient's inspiratory airflow. The powder is subject to numerous cohesive and adhesive forces that must be overcome if it is to be dispersed. Fluidization and entrainment requires the input of energy to the static powder bed.
DPIs can be divided into two classes: passive and active devices. Passive devices rely solely upon the patients inspiratory flow through the DPI to provide the energy needed for dispersion. This method has the advantage that drug release is automatically coordinated with the patient's inhalation. The disadvantage is that dispersion is typically highly dependent on the patient's ability to inhale at an optimum flow rate for aerosol generation. Depending on the inhaler design, this requirement may be difficult for some patients if the device resistance to airflow is high. Active dispersion devices have been under development for the past ten years but none has yet been approved. Like propellant driven metered dose inhalers, active devices use a source external to the patient to provide the energy needed for powder dispersion. This has the advantage of potentially reducing the dependence of uniform dosing on the patient's capabilities. However, without a feedback mechanism for the energy source, it is still possible that different patients will receive different doses. In addition, the complexity of these devices has contributed to their inability to achieve regulatory approval and may increase the cost of the device.
Passive devices have progressed in their complexity and performance since the introduction of the Allen & Hanbury's Rotahaler and the Fison's Spinhaler in the 1970's. Passive dispersion relies on the airflow generated by the user to aerosolize the powdered drug. All passive devices disperse the drug by passing the airflow through the powder bed. Early devices dispersed very small quantities of respirable sized particles, often on the order of 10% of the nominal dose. In general, this poor performance can be attributed to the incomplete deaggregation of smaller drug particles from larger carrier particles used as a diluent and an aid to powder flow during dispersion. Modern devices utilize significant turbulence to aid in the deaggregation process. Turbulence can be provided by tortuous flow paths for the particle laden airflow as in the AstraZeneca Turbuhaler, the Schering-Plough Twisthaler and U.S. Pat. No. 5,469,843; changing dimensions of the airflow path (U.S. Pat. No. 5,437,271); or by impactor plates that also reduce the emission of large particles (U.S. Pat. No. 5,724,959). A device developed by Innovative Devices (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,209,538 and 5,988,163) addresses the desirability of dispersing powder at optimal flow rates via channels whose operation is flow dependent. Initially, flow is diverted around the drug and is allowed to pass through the drug only when the optimal flow rate has been obtained. This device bridges the gap between passive and active devices by adding active features to a passive device.
Active devices use mechanisms such as springs or a battery to store energy that can be released to aid in powder dispersion. The best known active devices are the Inhale (Nektar) Deep Lung delivery system and the Dura Spiros. The Inhale device uses compressed air generated by the user through a spring loaded pump mechanism to disperse powder drug. There are a few other patents identified that utilize compressed air (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,875,776 and 6,003,512) or a vacuum (U.S. Pat. No. 6,138,673) to provide energy for dispersion. The Dura Spiros DPI uses a battery driven impeller to disperse drug powder. The impeller operates only when the patient inhales through the DPI to ensure that dosing does not occur when not in use. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,469,843 and 5,482,032 describe another mechanism of dispersion (use of a hammer or other means of impaction to dislodge drug from a powder bed typically contained on a blister strip). Little published data is available for the active devices since most of their development has occurred in a proprietary atmosphere. Some of the patented technology, both for active and passive devices, is only conceptual.
For lung deposition, drug particles are generally required to be smaller than 10 μm (microns) in aerodynamic diameter. They may be prepared by either size reduction methods, such as milling, or particle construction methods, such as condensation, evaporation or precipitation. Historically, respirable particles are produced by jet-milling, where there is little control over the particle size, shape or morphology. The resulting fractured particles are highly electrostatic, cohesive, and subjective to changes in crystallinity. Alternative methods of particle generation include spray-drying, solvent evaporation or extraction or supercritical fluid condensation. All of these methods produce structurally more uniform particles.
Particles smaller than 10 μm generally exhibit poor flow properties due to their high interparticle forces. Formulation strategies to improve the flowability of respirable particles include the controlled agglomeration of drug particles or adhesion onto excipient carrier particles in the form of interactive mixtures. The agglomerates or interactive mixtures are required to be strong enough to withstand processing, storage or transport processes, but weak enough to allow drug deaggregation and dispersion during actuation. Controlled agglomeration may be achieved by feeding micronized powders through a screw feeder, followed by spheronization in a rotating pan or drum. This method may be used for formulations containing drug alone or drug/lactose blends. Factors affecting the aerosol dispersion of carrier-based formulations include drug and carrier properties, such as size, shape, surface roughness (rugosity), chemical composition and crystalline state, the drug-carrier ratio and the presence of ternary components.
The drug particle size effects aerosol dispersion. Different sized spray-dried mannitol (2.7 to 7.3 μm) and disodium cromoglycate (2.3 to 5.2 μm) particles were examined. Higher aerosol dispersion, due to less cohesion, was observed in larger particles; however, lower fine particle fraction (FPF) was produced due to greater impaction on the throat and upper stages of the impinger and smaller proportion of fine particles. Conditioning or surface modification of drug particles may reduce aggregation and improve aerosol dispersion. The amorphous content of particles may be reduced by treatment with water vapor in controlled temperature and relative humidity conditions or treatment in a vacuum oven. Surface modification by adhesion of nanoparticles onto the drug particles may increase aerosol dispersion. Hydrophilic silicic acid and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose phthalate (HPMCP) nanoparticles increased device emission and respirable fractions of pranlukast hydrate in both drug alone and carrier-based formulations.
Conflicting reports exist on the influence of drug concentration in carrier-based DPI formulations. Increasing drug concentration may increase the respirable fraction or reduce the respirable fraction.
The particle size, shape, surface morphology and chemical composition of carrier particles can influence aerosol dispersion. Increased drug dispersion and deposition is generally observed with smaller carrier size and increased proportion of fine particles. However, the carrier size did not affect the FPF in some formulations. Higher FPF was produced with larger carrier sizes (within 63-90 μm). Poor dispersion of nedocromil was obtained using coarse carrier systems, whereas the use of fine carrier particles and high shear mixing techniques physically disrupted the drug-drug contacts and promoted deaggregation. Elongated carriers increased aerosol dispersibility and drug FPF, possibly due to increased duration in the airstream drag forces. Carriers with smooth surfaces produced higher respirable fractions. Low respirable fractions were obtained from carriers with macroscopic surface roughness or smooth surfaces, whereas high respirable fractions were obtained from carriers with microscopic surface roughness, where smaller contact area and reduced drug adhesion occurred at the tiny surface protrusions. A modification of carrier formulation involves the use of soft friable lactose pellets containing micronized lactose particles, which break down into primary particles during inhalation has also been described. The lactose pellet may be coated with drug. In another study, carrier particles with good powder flow characteristics exhibited reduced adhesion to a defined solid surface and produced higher drug deposition in an animal model. The influence of carrier particle size on the performance of a formulation in a DPI device is summarized in the following table.
PropertyImproved byUniformity and blendingIncreasing particle sizePowder flowIncreasing particle sizeEntrainment tendancyIncreasing particle size(typically, but depends onproperties of carrier)Dispersion and PotentialDecreasing particle sizefor Lung Delivery(function of drug-carrier andaggregate particle size)
Thus for dry powder inhaler formulations, the size of carrier particles should be selected on the basis of a balance between these interrelated performance characteristics. Specifically, inter-particulate forces should be such that the drug particles adhere to the carrier (to aid in blending, uniformity, and allow the entrainment of drug into the inspiratory air-stream), yet also allow detachment of the fine drug particles from the surface of the coarser carrier particles so that delivery to the lung can be facilitated.
In vitro drug deposition has been examined using different grades of lactose carrier. The higher FPF of salbutamol (albuterol) sulphate obtained from anhydrous and medium lactose was attributed to a higher proportion of fine particles and smooth surface roughness. The higher FPF of nacystelyn obtained from anhydrous β-lactose was attributed to its intermediate surface roughness. Other sugars were investigated as fine and coarse carriers. Higher FPF was obtained using mannitol coarse carrier, possibly due to a higher fine particle content and more elongated shape. Mixtures with added fine particle carrier produced higher FPF with little difference observed between the fine carrier type.
The addition of fine ternary components has increased the FPF of various drug particles. Ternary components examined include magnesium stearate, lactose, L-leucine, PEG 6000 and lecithin. Many possible explanations exist for the mechanism of action of ternary components, including the saturation of active sites on the carrier, electrostatic interactions and drug redistribution on the ternary component.
Recent developments in the improvement of DPI formulation efficiency are focused on particle engineering techniques. Improved aerosol dispersion of particles may be achieved by the co-spray-drying with excipients, such as sodium chloride, or human serum albumin (HSA). Respirable-sized particles composed of hydrophobic drug and hydrophilic excipients were produced by simultaneous spray-drying of separate solutions through a co-axial nozzle. Therapeutically active peptide particles have been produced by spray-drying with good flow and dispersibility properties, including insulin, α-1-antitrypsin and β-interferon. The addition of stabilizing excipients, such as mannitol and human serum albumin (HSA) is generally required. Spray-dried microspheres composed of cellulose lower alkyl ethers, such as hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, may be used for sustained drug release. These particles are adhesive following water adsorption from the lung mucosa. Stable dry powder formulations of polynucleotide complexes were produced by lyophilization with a cryoprotectant, such as mannitol, followed by sieving or milling.
Large porous particles (geometric diameters of 5-30 μm and tap density less than 0.4 g/mL) with aerodynamic diameters of 1-5 μm are prepared by spray-drying. These large particles are less cohesive, due to reduced van der Waals forces, and have improved flow and aerosol dispersion properties. Increased rough surface texture may further minimize particle aggregation and improve flow. Particles deposited in the alveolar regions may avoid phagocytic engulfment by size exclusion. Controlled rate of drug release is achieved using biodegradable polymers, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(glycolic acid) (PGA). Surfactants, such as dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) may be incorporated to further improve powder flow, aerosol dispersion and lung deposition.
Drug or peptide encapsulated in hollow microcapsules are free flowing, easily deaggregated and produce high respirable fractions. Wall materials include human serum albumin (HSA) or PGA and PLA. Reduced dissolution may be obtained by coating with fatty acids, such as palmitic acid or lipid soluble surfactants, such as Span 85. The PulmoSphere™ small hollow particles (5 μm geometric diameter and bulk densities less than 0.1 g/mL) are spray-dried from emulsions of drug, phosphatidylcholine and perfluorocarbon.
Current commercial DPI formulations are based on drug agglomerates or carrier-based interactive mixtures. Excipients act as diluents and stability enhancers and improve flowability and aerosol dispersibility. Since lactose is the only US-approved excipient for DPI formulations, there is a need for alternative safe excipients. Suggestions have included carbohydrates, such as fructose, glucose, galactose, sucrose, trehalose, raffinose, melezitose; alditols, such as mannitol and xylitol; maltodextrins, dextrans, cyclodextrins, amino acids, such as glycine, arginine, lysine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and polypeptides, such as human serum albumin and gelatin. To mask the unpleasant taste of some inhaled drug compounds, flavoring particles containing maltodextrin and peppermint oil may be incorporated into dry powder formulations. Large sized particles increase mouth deposition and reduce lung deposition.
Commercial formulations predominantly deliver bronchodilators, anticholinergics and corticosteriods for the local treatment of asthma and chronic airways obstruction. New formulations contain multiple drug components, such as fluticasone and salmeterol. This brings about further complications in the particle interactions involved with powder systems. There has been much speculation on the potential delivery of locally and systemically acting drugs such as analgesics (fentanyl and morphine), antibiotics, peptides (insulin, vasopressin, growth hormone, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone), RNA/DNA fragments for gene therapy and vaccines. However, the only new therapy provided using DPI formulations is zanamivir (Relenza), which is mainly targeted at the upper respiratory tract for the treatment of influenza.
The use of formulation additives to enhance drug uptake has also been considered. The nature of these absorption promoters is based on a variety of mechanisms, not all of which are fully elucidated. The best known are the classical absorption enhancers such as bile salts and surfactants which are known to disrupt cell membranes and open tight junctions rendering epithelia more permeable. This has been followed by the use of small particulates containing drug, which may find their way across epithelia intact. Many of these particulate approaches have yet to be published with respect to lung delivery but some of the companies with relevant technology include Nanosystems, PDC and BioSante. An alternative approach involves the close association of a carrier molecule with peptides and proteins for transport across the epithelium. The mechanism of improved uptake is not fully characterized for these molecules with respect to the lung epithelium. The maximum doses that can be delivered to the lungs limit the systemic delivery of drugs. However, the potential advantage of all of the particulate or molecular transport promoters is that they may improve bioavailability of the drug, maximizing the proportion of the dose that reaches the site of action. This is particularly important for macromolecules which may not be delivered effectively by any other route of administration. The safety implications of using any agent that modifies the physiology of the lung must be fully considered if it is to be adopted for any commercially viable product.
The principle advantages of a DPI and MDI over a nebulizer are that very low volumes of a formulation can be used thereby making feasible the manufacture and use of small delivery devices. Moreover, DPI and MDI devices require very short administration times as compared to nebulizers. MDI devices, however, are becoming less acceptable due to the international restrictions on the use of chlorofluorocarbon propellants that are required for operation of an MDI.
The administration of these drugs in the form of micronized powder requires the use of suitable dry powder inhalers (DPIs).
DPIs in turn can be divided into two additional basic types:                single dose inhalers, for the administration of single subdivided doses of the active compound;        multidose dry powder inhalers (MDPIs), preloaded with quantities of active principles sufficient for longer treatment cycles.        
Although micronization of the drug particles is essential for penetration to the deepest branchings of the pulmonary tree during inhalation, it is also known that the finer are the particles, the stronger are the cohesion forces. In multidose inhalers, said effects hamper the loading of the doses of powder from the reservoir system to the aerosolization chamber, since the cohesion forces reduce free flowing of the particles and promote their agglomeration and/or their adhesion to the walls. The aforementioned effects therefore impair the efficiency and reproducibility of the delivered dose and are detrimental to the respirable fraction.
Multidose inhalers work properly when so-called freeflowing powders are used, generally formulated by mixing the micronized drug with a carrier material (generally lactose, preferably α-lactose monohydrate) consisting of coarser particles, approximately equal or greater than 100 microns. In such mixtures, the micronized active particles mainly adhere to the surface of the carrier particles whilst in the inhaler device; on the contrary, during inhalation, a redispersion of the drug particles from the surface of the carrier particles occurs allowing the formers to reach the absorption site into the lungs.
Mixing with the carrier also facilitate the introduction and withdrawal of the inhalation preparation, in a regular dose, from the reservoir of a multidose inhaler or its dosage in single-dose containers. Mixing of the micronized drug with the coarse carrier therefore leads to the production of a mixture in which the micronized drug is distributed uniformly on the carrier particles as a result of the interactions, usually of an electrostatic nature, which establish between the drug particles and the carrier particles.
Said interactions lead to the production of a so-called ordered mixture. It is extremely important for the interactions to be weak and reversible, so that, since transport in the air stream and the respirability of the powder depend on the particle size, only the micronized drug particles will be able to be deposited in the lungs, whereas the coarser carrier particles will be deposited, because of their mass, in the upper airways. Due to the weak interactions between the two components of the mixture, breathing-in through the inhaler causes separation of the micronized drug particles from the coarse carrier particles and therefore inhalation of the smaller particles and deposition of the coarser particles in the oropharyngeal cavity. Accordingly, it is of great applicative interest to find new carriers for inhalers and new techniques for the production of drug-carrier mixtures that are easy to handle and able to generate a high respirable fraction.
The use of a carrier is indeed not free of drawbacks in that the strong interparticle forces between the two ingredients may prevent the separation of the micronized drug particles from the surface of the coarse carriers ones on inhalation, so compromising the availability of the drug to the respiratory tract.
In the prior art there are many examples of processes for modifying the surface conditions of the carrier with the aim of reducing the strength of the interactions between the particles during inhalation, without causing pre-separation of the drug particles in the inhaler.
Ganderton (GB 2 240 337) reports that the surface conditions of the particles, in particular their rugosity, are critical for the behavior of the carrier during inhalation and claims pharmaceutical carriers, such as lactose, consisting of particles whose rugosity is controlled by a crystallization process. The rugosity of the said particles is evaluated using measurements of surface area, based on gas permeametry. The surface area value measured by this technique, relative to the theoretical surface area value, provides a numerical index of rugosity called Ganderton scale.
Staniforth (WO 95/11666) claims a milling process preferably carried out in a ball mill, called corrasion (for analogy with the effect of wind on rocks), which alters the surface characteristics of the carrier by removing asperities in the form of small grains; these grains in turn can become attached to the clefts of the surface area of the particles, so saturating the high energy sites. As a result of this preliminary treatment of the carrier, the micronized drug particles are deposited preferentially on lower-energy sites and so are subject to weaker forces of interparticle adhesion.
On the other hand, the operation of some multidose inhalers requires the use of optimum carriers of high flowability, a characteristic that can only be imparted by using particles with a greater granulometric distribution.
Disaggregation of the active principle from the carrier during inhalation can also be made more efficient by addition of a fraction of fine particles of the same carrier. The Boheringer patent EP 0 663 815 claims the use of carriers for controlling and optimizing the amount of drug released during the aerosolization phase, comprising suitable mixtures of coarse particles with size>20 microns and of fine particles with size<10 microns.
Finally, in the prior art, additives with lubricant, glidant or anti-adherent properties, dry-mixed with the carrier, have been employed with the aim of reducing the forces of attraction between drug and carrier. For example, mixing of magnesium stearate with crystalline lactose is able to reduce the forces of adhesion between drug and carrier, when this mixture is used as inhalation carrier. For explaining the effectiveness of magnesium stearate in the aerosolization of inhalation powders, investigations conducted on powder mixtures for tablets can be taken into account (Staniforth et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1982, 34, 141-145). These investigations showed that the presence of lubricants causes a decrease in cohesion of the tablets because they form a lubricated layer on the powder particles that are to be pressed together, thereby interfering with the bond between them.
This mechanism is also regarded as responsible for the decrease in strength of adhesion of the micronized drug particles on the carrier particles (Kassem, thesis, London University, 1990).
In WO 96/23485, the particles are mixed with a substance with anti-adherent or antifriction properties, consisting of one or more compounds selected from amino acids (in particular leucine), phospholipids or surfactants; deposition of the additive on the carrier is preferably carried out in the dry form, and does not give rise to a complete coating of the carrier, but rather to a discontinuous covering in order to saturate the highenergy sites. Preferably, the carrier particles and the additive are submitted to the corrasion process in a ball mill as described in WO 95/11666.
It follows from examination of the prior art that in the case of an inhalation powder, consisting of a drug-carrier mixture, efficient disaggregation of the active principle from the carrier during inhalation is dependent upon the drug-carrier interparticle forces and so depends on the surface characteristics of the latter.
The current market for Dry Powder Inhalers (DPIs) is expanding for several reasons including: environmental and technical concerns with pressurized metered dose inhalers, improved performance and acceptance of newly marketed DPIs, and the potential utility of DPIs for novel and systemically acting drug compounds. However, despite market growth, current DPIs have several shortcomings. Commercially available dry powder inhalers are generally less efficient and reproducible in delivering drugs to the lower airways than pressurized metered dose inhalers. Thus, several opportunities exist for improving the performance of DPIs including:                increasing the fine particle fraction delivered (by inference, increasing lung deposition and reducing oropharyngeal deposition);        decreasing variability of emitted dose and fine particle fraction;        decreasing the dependence of dose delivered and region of delivery on inspiratory flow rate;        decreasing inhaler resistance and energy required to disperse drug aerosol;        increasing physical stability;        improving ease of manufacture of DPIs;        decreasing oropharyngeal deposition;        enhancing control over regional lung deposition; and        increasing pulmonary bioavailability.        
There are other areas in which performance can be improved such as: increasing physical stability; and improving the ease of manufacture of DPIs and dry powder formulations. The most imminent needs of dry powder inhaler design are increasing the fine particle fraction and decreasing the variability between doses.
While DPI and MDI formulations of drug may be highly desirable, the number and type of suitable formulations that can be prepared is limited. This is due in large part to the limited compounds suitable as carriers in these dosage forms.
It is known in the art of inhalable powder formulations that the morphological and physicochemical properties of the drug and excipients (carrier) can affect the performance of a device used to administer the two. In particular, particle size of the drug and inert carrier has a great impact upon the ultimate site of delivery for each. A smaller particle size (less than about 10 microns) is accepted for lung delivery whereas larger particle sizes are preferred for tracheal, throat or buccal delivery with a DPI device. It is also known that the hygroscopicity of the drug and carrier can affect performance. Other factors known to affect the efficiency of delivery of a powdered solid with a DPI device include: electrostatic interactions between the drug and carrier particles, surface morphology of the particles, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of the drug and carrier particles, and others.
The desired properties of an inert carrier for use in a DPI include: 1) a particle diameter is within 50-1000 microns; 2) ability to associate with a drug sufficiently to aid in suspending it during a the period of administration balanced against an ability to dissociate from the drug in the buccal cavity or throat of a subject to permit pulmonary delivery of the drug but not of the carrier; 3) inertness toward degradation of the drug; 4) inertness in terms of not providing a therapeutic effect to a subject; 5) controllable and modifiable morphological properties; 6) suitability for preparation by a range of different processes; and/or 7) controllable and modifiable chemical properties.
Mono- or disaccharides, such as glucose, lactose, lactose monohydrate, sucrose or trehalose, sugar alcohols, such as mannitol or xylitol, polylactic acid, glucose, and trehalose are among the few compounds that are used as carriers in these devices. The properties of those compounds can be modified at least somewhat to optimize their performance. Even so, there are many drugs that cannot be suitably formulated with lactose for this type of administration. Therefore, identification of another material that is suitable as carrier and which properties can be modified in a controlled manner would be desired.
The current focus in DPI therapy is to administer higher concentrations of drug, use smaller unit dose volumes, develop new carriers having specific properties, identify and develop carriers suitable for use with specific DPI device formats.
In order to enhance drug absorption across the pulmonary lining, researchers have proposed the inclusion of permeation enhancers in DPI and PMDI devices. Cyclodextrins have been proposed for use in nebulizer liquid formulations as well as DPI and PMDI solid formulations. However, administration of some cyclodextrins into the lungs of a mammal might not be acceptable. Literature exists on the potential or observed toxicity of native cyclodextrins and cyclodextrin derivatives. The NTP Chemical Repository indicates that α-cyclodextrin may be harmful by inhalation. Nimbalkar et al. (Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. (2001), 33, 123-125) cautions on the pulmonary use of an HP-β-CD/diacetyldapsone complex due to its initial effect of delaying cell growth of lung cells.
Even so, a number of studies regarding the use of cyclodextrins for inhalation have been reported although no ensuing formulations have been commercialized. The studies suggest that different drug-cyclodextrin combinations will be required for specific optimal or even useful inhaled or intra-nasal formulations. Attempts have been made to develop cyclodextrin-containing powders and solutions for buccal, pulmonary and/or nasal delivery.
A number of scientific publications and patent references disclose inhalable dry powder compositions comprising a cyclodextrin. For the most part, the cyclodextrin is included as an inclusion complex with the drug.
Rajewski et al. (J. Pharm. Sci. (1996), 85(11), 1142-1169) provide a review of the pharmaceutical applications of cyclodextrins. In that review, they cite studies evaluating the use of cyclodextrin complexes in dry powder inhalation systems.
U.S. Pregrant Patent Publication No. 2003-215512 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,309,671 to Billingsley et al. discloses a powdered inhalable composition wherein the drug is embedded within a glassy matrix formed of a cyclodextrin. As such, the drug is complexed with the drug and is not separable therefrom during administration with a DPI device.
Shao et al (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. (1994), 40, 283-288) reported on the effectiveness of cyclodextrins as pulmonary absorption promoters. The relative effectiveness of cyclodextrins in enhancing pulmonary insulin absorption, as measured by pharmacodynamics, and relative efficiency was ranked as follows: dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin>α-cyclodextrin>β-cyclodextrin>γ-cyclodextrin>hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin.
New Zealand Patent Application No. 510168 discloses a particulate composition for the delivery of a drug to the alveoli of the lung. The dry composition comprises the drug and at least 40% wt. of cyclodextrin. The particles are prepared by spray drying a liquid composition containing the cyclodextrin and drug, so the cyclodextrin is complexed with the drug and is not separable therefrom during administration of the composition with a DPI device.
Rodrigues et al. (Artificial Organs, (May 2003) Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 492-497) disclose the preparation of particles containing a complex of insulin and cyclodextrin such that the two are delivered to the lung.
Nakate et al. (European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics (2003), 56(3), 319-325) disclose the administration of FK224 by DPI using β-CD particles in admixture with the drug. The formulation is made by simultaneous micronization of the FK224 and β-CD such that both are of a particle size suitable for delivery to the lungs.
Fukaya et al. (European Respiratory Journal (2003), 22(2), 213-219) disclose the results of an evaluation of a DPI dry powder formulation containing a complex of cyclosporin A and a cyclodextrin.
Kinnarinen et al. (Journal of Controlled Release (2003), 90(2), 197-205) disclose a DPI formulation comprising a complex of budesonide and γ-CD.
Vozone et al. (Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Macrocyclic Chemistry (2002), Volume Date 2003, 44(1-4), 111-115) disclose the administration of budesonide and dimethyl-β-CD present as either a preformed complex or physical mixture in a composition for dry powder inhalation. They observed no statistically significant difference between the emitted dose means of both the complex and the physical mixture, but they observed a statistically significant higher fine particle fraction mean was for the complex. They suggest that using a spray-dried CD complex powder for pulmonary drug delivery may increase the drug's respirable fraction and consequently its therapeutic efficacy.
PCT International Publication No. WO 01/87278 to Kampinga discloses the preparation and use of particles containing 10-40% of drug and 90-60% of a saccharide, which can be cyclodextrin. If a cyclodextrin were present, it would be complexed with the drug due to the method of preparation employed.
Camoes et al. (Proceedings of the International Symposium on Controlled Release of Bioactive Materials (2000), 27th, 794-795) disclose β-CD complexes with salbutamol for dry powder inhalation.
Pinto et al. (S.T.P. Pharma Sciences (1999), 9(3), 253-256) disclose HP-β-CD complexes with beclomethasone and use thereof in a dry powder inhalable formulation.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,582,728 to Platz et al. discloses a dry powder inhalable formulation comprising a drug and a carrier, which can be cyclodextrin. The formulation is prepared by spray drying the drug and carrier together. If a cyclodextrin were the carrier, it would be complexed with the drug due to the method of preparation.
European Patent No. 1283035 discloses an inhalable dry powder formulation comprising parathyroid hormone, an absorption enhancer and a coarse particle carrier. The cyclodextrin can be an enhancer, but it is not suggested as being a suitable carrier. Since it is an absorption enhancer, it is delivered into the lungs with the drug.
U.S. Pregrant Patent Publication No. 2003-0138403 to Drustrup discloses formulations containing interferon and SAE-CD. The formulations are suggested as being suitable for administration by inhalation. The formulations contain the preformed complex of interferon and SAE-CD.
U.S. Pregrant Patent Publications No. 2003-064928 to Backstrom et al. and No. 2003-059376 to Libbey et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 6,436,902 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,952,008 to Backstrom et al. disclose inhalable formulations wherein cyclodextrin is incorporated into the matrix of particles to enhance the absorption of drug in the lung. The cyclodextrin is not separable from the drug during administration.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,599,535 to Guitard et al. discloses solid dispersion compositions comprising a macrolide drug and a carrier medium, which can be a cyclodextrin. A number of water soluble cyclodextrin derivatives are suggested, including SAE-CD; however, the process for preparing the composition results in complexation of the drug and cyclodextrin. So, the drug and cyclodextrin are both delivered to the lung.
U.S. Pregrant Patent Publications No. 2002-117170 to Platz et al. discloses a spray-dried composition containing FSH and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, which can be a cyclodextrin. It is likely that the FSA and cyclodextrin would be present as a complex due to the spray-drying process described in the application.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,120 to McCoy et al. discloses the pulmonary administration of a drug, HP-β-CD and a carrier solvent. The formulation comprises the drug, a cyclodextrin and a solvent, so the drug is complexed with the cyclodextrin.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,440 to Backstrom et al. discloses inhalable formulations comprising insulin and an absorption enhancer, such as a cyclodextrin. Both the cyclodextrin and insulin are intended to be delivered to the lung.
van der Kuy et al. (Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. (1999 November), 55(9), 677-80) report the results of the pharmacokinetic properties of two intranasal preparations of dihydroergotamine mesylate (DHEM)-containing formulation using a commercially available intranasal preparation. The formulations also contained randomly methylated β-cyclodextrin (RAMEB). No statistically significant differences were found in maximum plasma concentration (Cmax), time to reach Cmax (tmax), area under plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0-8 h), Frel(t=8 h) and Cmax/AUC(t=8 h) for the three intranasal preparations. The results indicate that the pharmacokinetic properties of the intranasal preparations are not significantly different from the commercially available nasal spray.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,942,251 and 5,756,483 to Merkus cover pharmaceutical compositions for the intranasal administration of dihydroergotamine, apomorphine and morphine comprising one of these pharmacologically active ingredients in combination with a cyclodextrin and/or a disaccharide and/or a polysaccharide and/or a sugar alcohol.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,454 discloses a pharmaceutical preparation suitable for nasal administration containing a progestogen and a methylated β-cyclodextrin having a degree of substitution of between 0.5 and 3.0.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,977,070 to Piazza et al. discloses a pharmaceutical composition for the nasal delivery of compounds useful for treating osteoporosis, comprising an effective amount of a physiologically active truncated analog of PTH or PTHrp, or salt thereof and an absorption enhancer selected from the group consisting of dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin.
PCT International Publication No. WO 00/015,262 to Clark et al. discloses inhalable powdered compositions comprising a hygroscopic growth inhibitor and a drug. The inhibitor can be a cyclodextrin among other things, and SBE-CD is exemplified as a suitable cyclodextrin. The cyclodextrin is complexed with the drug in the formulation due to the process of preparation employed.
PCT International Publication No. WO 00/066,206 to Thurston et al. discloses a multi-component inhalable composition, wherein a cyclodextrin can be included as a drug stabilizing agent. The cyclodextrin is complexed with the drug in the formulation due to the process of preparation employed.
Other references suggest the use, in general, of a cyclodextrin as a carrier in a DPI formulation. PCT International Publication No. WO 01/05429 to Caponetti et al. discloses the use of mixtures suitable for dry powder inhalation. The compositions comprise smooth carrier particles in admixture with a drug. Cyclodextrins, among other things, are suggested as being suitable for the carrier. There is no exemplification of such a use. The carrier particles are made by smoothing the surface of rough particles in a high speed mixer granulator alternately in the presence of a solvent or in dry form.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,645,466 to Keller et al. discloses a dry powder formulation for inhalation. The formulation contains a fine inhalable particle size drug, a coarser non-inhalable particle size carrier and magnesium stearate bound to the carrier. A cyclodextrin can apparently serve as the carrier. There is no disclosure regarding examples or preferred properties for the cyclodextrin as carrier, nor is there any disclosure of a method of preparing the CD to make it suitable as the carrier.
The parent cyclodextrins contain 6, 7, or 8 glucopyranose units and are referred to as α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrin respectively. Each cyclodextrin subunit has secondary hydroxyl groups at the 2 and 3 positions and a primary hydroxyl group at the 6-position. The cyclodextrins may be pictured as hollow truncated cones with hydrophilic exterior surfaces and hydrophobic interior cavities.
The physical and chemical properties of the parent cyclodextrins can be modified by
derivatizing the hydroxyl groups with other functional groups. One such derivative is a sulfoalkyl ether cyclodextrin. A sulfobutyl ether derivative of beta cyclodextrin (SBE-β-CD), in particular the derivative with an average of about 7 substituents per cyclodextrin molecule (SBE7-β-CD), has been commercialized by CyDex, Inc. as CAPTISOL®. The anionic sulfobutyl ether substituent dramatically improves the aqueous solubility of the parent cyclodextrin. In addition, the presence of the charges decreases the ability of the molecule to complex with cholesterol as compared to the hydroxypropyl derivative. Reversible, non-covalent, complexation of drugs with CAPTISOL® cyclodextrin generally allows for increased solubility and stability of drugs in aqueous solutions. While CAPTISOL® is a relatively new but known cyclodextrin, some references specifically directed to SAE-CD's disclose its use in an inhalable liquid formulation. Even so, its use in the preparation of solid dry powder formulations for a DPI has not previously been evaluated.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,874,418 to Stella et al. discloses solid formulations comprising a physical mixture of a drug and an SAE-CD, wherein a major portion of the drug is not complexed with the SAE-CD. However, Stella et al. do not suggest that such a formulation is suitable for administration via inhalation, in particular with a DPI or PMDI device. They also do not disclose any methods of controlling or varying the morphological and physicochemical properties of the SAE-CD, so one of the art would not be able to prepare forms of SAE-CD that are suitable for DPI administration.
Another such derivative is hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD). Müller et al. (Proceed. Int'l. Symp. Control. Rel. Bioact. Mater. (1997), 24, 69-70) discloses the results of a study on the preparation of budesonide microparticles by an ASES supercritical carbon dioxide process for use in a dry powder inhaler. HP-β-CD is suggested as a carrier for a powder.
Pinto et al. (S.T.P. Pharma. Sciences (1999), 9(3), 253-256) disclose the results of a study on the use of HP-β-CD in an inhalable dry powder formulation for beclomethasone. The HP-β-CD was evaluated as a complex or physical mixture with the drug in a study of in vitro deposition of the emitted dose from a MICRO-HALER™ inhalation device. The amount of respirable drug fraction was reportedly highest with the complex and lowest with the micronized drug alone.
Williams et al. (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. (1999 March), 47(2), 145-52) reported the results of a study to determine the influence of the formulation technique for 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) on the stability of aspirin in a suspension-based pressurized metered-dose inhaler (pMDI) formulation containing a hydrofluoroalkane (HFA) propellant. HP-β-CD was formulated in a pMDI as a lyophilized inclusion complex or a physical mixture with aspirin. Aspirin in the lyophilized inclusion complex exhibited the most significant degree of degradation during the 6-months storage, while aspirin alone in the pMDI demonstrated a moderate degree of degradation. Aspirin formulated in the physical mixture displayed the least degree of degradation. Reportedly, HP-β-CD may be used to enhance the stability of a chemically labile drug, but the drug stability may be affected by the method of preparation of the formulation.
Worth et al. (24th International Symposium on Controlled Release of Bioactive Materials (1997)) disclose the results of a study evaluating the utility of steroid/cyclodextrin complexes for pulmonary delivery. In side-by-side comparisons, β-CD, SBE7-β-CD, and HP-β-CD were evaluated according to their ability to form inclusion complexes with beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) and its active metabolite beclomethasone monopropionate (BMP). BMP was more easily solubilized with a cyclodextrin, and the observed order of solubilizing power was: HP-β-CD (highest)>β-CD>SBE7-β-CD. Although no results regarding actual utility in an inhaled formulation were disclosed, they suggest that BMP rather than BDP would be a better alternative for development of a nebulizer solution.
Kinnarinen et al. (11th International Cyclodextrin Symposium CD, (2002)) disclose the results of a study of the in vitro pulmonary deposition of a budesonide/γ-CD inclusion complex for dry powder inhalation. No advantage was observed by complexation with γ-CD. Vozone et al. (11th International Cyclodextrin Symposium CD, (2002)) disclose the results of a study on the complexation of budesonide with γ-cyclodextrin for use in dry powder inhalation. No difference was observed within emitted doses of the cyclodextrin complex or a physical mixture of budesonide and the CD. But, a difference observed in the fine particle fraction of both formulations suggested that use of a cyclodextrin complex for pulmonary drug delivery might increase the respirable fraction.
Gudmundsdottir et al. (Pharmazie (2001 December), 56(12), 963-6) disclose the results of a study in which midazolam was formulated in aqueous sulfobutylether-beta-cyclodextrin buffer solution. The nasal spray was tested in healthy volunteers and compared to intravenous midazolam in an open crossover trial. The nasal formulation reportedly approaches the intravenous form in speed of absorption, serum concentration and clinical sedation effect. No serious side effects were observed.
Srichana et al. (Respir. Med. (2001 June), 95(6), 513-9) report the results of a study to develop a new carrier in dry powder aerosols. Two types of cyclodextrin were chosen; gamma cyclodextrin (γ-CD) and dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin (DMCD) as carriers in dry powder formulations. Salbutamol was used as a model drug and a control formulation containing lactose and the drug was included. A twin-stage impinger (TSI) was used to evaluate in delivery efficiency of those dry powder formulations. From the results obtained, it was found that the formulation containing γ-CD enhanced drug delivery to the lower stage of the TSI (deposition=65%) much greater than that of both formulations containing DMCD (50%) and the control formulation (40%) (P<0.05). The haemolysis of red blood cells incubated with the DMCD complex was higher than that obtained in the γ-CD complex. The drug release in both formulations containing γ-CD and DMCD was fast (over 70% was released in 5 min) and nearly all the drug was released within 30 min.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,436,902 to Backstrom et al. discloses compositions and methods for the pulmonary administration of a parathyroid hormone in the form of a dry powder suitable for inhalation in which at least 50% of the dry powder consists of (a) particles having a diameter of up to 10 microns; or (b) agglomerates of such particles. A dry powder inhaler device contains a preparation consisting of a dry powder comprising (i) a parathyroid hormone (PTH), and (ii) a substance that enhances the absorption of PTH in the lower respiratory tract, wherein at least 50% of (i) and (ii) consists of primary particles having a diameter of up to 10 microns, and wherein the substance is selected from the group consisting of a salt of a fatty acid, a bile salt or derivative thereof, a phospholipid, and a cyclodextrin or derivative thereof.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,518,239 to Kuo et al. discloses a dispersible aerosol formulation comprising an active agent and a dipeptide or tripeptide for aerosolized administration to the lung. The compositions reportedly may also include polymeric excipients/additives, e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidones, derivatized celluloses such as hydroxymethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, Ficolls (a polymeric sugar), hydroxyethylstarch, dextrates (e.g., cyclodextrins, such as 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin), polyethylene glycols, and pectin.
PCT International Publication No. WO 03/066,031 to Mueller et al. of PharmaTech Gmbh discloses a suspension formulation for use in a pMDI. The suspension comprises a drug, propellant and a cyclodextrin derivative, which can be a hydroxyalkyl ether cyclodextrin or a sulfoalkyl ether cyclodextrin, among other CD derivatives.
Nakate et al. (Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. (2003 March), 55(2), 147-54) disclose the results of a study to determine the improvement of pulmonary absorption of the cyclopeptide FK224 (low aqueous solubility) in rats by co-formulating it with beta-cyclodextrin. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of pulmonary delivery on the systemic absorption of FK224 in comparison with other administration routes, and to determine the bioavailability (BA) of FK224 following pulmonary administration in rats using various dosage forms. After administration of an aqueous suspension, the bioavailability was reduced to 2.7% compared with 16.8% for the solution. However, β-cyclodextrin ((3-CD) was found to be an effective additive as far as improving the solubility of FK224 was concerned. The bioavailability of the aqueous suspension containing β-CD was increased to 19.2%. It was observed that both the C(max) and AUC of FK224 were increased as the amount of β-CD increased. The plasma profiles showed sustained absorption. They suggest that β-CD or derivatives with various degrees of aqueous solubility are potential drug carriers for controlling pulmonary absorption.
Kobayashi et al. (Pharm. Res. (1996 January), 13(1), 80-3) disclose the results of a study on pulmonary delivery of salmon calcitonin (sCT) dry powders containing absorption enhancers in rats. After intratracheal administration of sCT dry powder and liquid (solution) preparations to rats, plasma sCT levels and calcium levels were measured. Reportedly, sCT in the dry powder and in the liquid were absorbed nearly to the same degree. Absorption enhancers (oleic acid, lecithin, citric acid, taurocholic acid, dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin, octyl-β-D-glucoside) were much more effective in the dry powder than in the solution.
Adjei et al. (Pharm. Res. (1992 February), 9(2), 244-9) disclose the results of a study on the bioavailability of leuprolide acetate following nasal and inhalation delivery to rats and healthy humans. Systemic delivery of leuprolide acetate, a luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist, was compared after inhalation (i.h.) and intranasal (i.n.) administration. The i.n. bioavailability in rats was significantly increased by α-cyclodextrin (CD), EDTA, and solution volume. Absorption ranged from 8 to 46% compared to i.v. controls. Studies in healthy human males were conducted with leuprolide acetate i.n. by spray, or inhalation aerosol (i.h.), and subcutaneous (s.c.) and intravenous (i.v.) injection. The s.c. injection was 94% bioavailable compared with i.v. The i.n. bioavailability averaged 2.4%, with significant subject-to-subject variability. Inhalation delivery gave a slightly lower intersubject variability. Mean Cmax with a 1-mg dose of solution aerosol was 0.97 ng/ml, compared with 4.4 and 11.4 ng/ml for suspension aerosols given at 1- and 2-mg bolus dosages, respectively. The mean bioavailability of the suspension aerosols (28% relative to s.c. administration) was fourfold greater than that of the solution aerosol (6.6%).
CyDex (Cyclopedia (2002), 5(1), 3) discloses that SBE-CD is non-toxic to rats in an inhaled aerosol composition when present alone.
The most imminent needs in dry powder inhaler design are: increasing the fine particle fraction (mass), and decreasing the variability between doses. Lactose is the only carrier particle used in FDA-approved DPIs the US, and it is known to exhibit large batch-to-batch variability in performance. Thus, further opportunities to improve material properties and process variables exist.
In summary, the art discloses inhalable dry powder formulations containing an inhalable drug and cyclodextrin; however, in almost every case, the cyclodextrin is present as an inclusion complex with the drug. In the few instances that the cyclodextrin has been suggested as a carrier, it is generally used as an absorption enhancer. To the knowledge of the present inventors, the art does not suggest that a water soluble cyclodextrin derivative, in particular a sulfoalkyl ether cyclodextrin (SAE-CD) would be suitable as a carrier in a DPI device, such that the drug and not the SAE-CD is delivered to the lungs after administration. Neither does the art provide any material which morphological, chemical and physicochemical properties are easily modified and adapted for suitable use in a DPI device with a wide range of different drugs. They also fail to provide a carrier suitable for use in DPI devices of different formats, particularly those that have low or high pressure drops.
A need remains in the art for a carrier material that provides significant advantages over lactose and other carriers, that is suitable for administration in dry powder form with a DPI, and that has readily modifiable morphological and physicochemical and chemical properties that can be adapted to optimize interaction with an active agent in a dry powder formulation for DPI.